The Buddha said "Do not believe in anything simply because you have heard it; not in traditions because they have been handed down for many generations; not in anything because it is spoken and rumoured by many; not in anything because it is found written in your spiritual texts; not in anything merely on the authority of your teachers and elders, but only after observation and analysis, when you find that anything agrees with reason and conducive to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept it and live up to it". (Kalama Sutta).

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), the famous philosopher and mathematician, who was a Christian, says: "Of the great religions of history, I prefer Buddhism, especially in its orthodox form, because it has had the smallest element of persecution". The intellectuals of the West have agreed that for the first time in the history of the world, Buddha proclaimed a salvation, which each man could gain for himself, and by himself in this world, during his life, without the least help from God or Gods.

Buddhism differes from other religions because (i) it does not believe in a Creator or an Almighty God who is responsible for all our actions, (ii) Buddhism, in actual sense, is not a religion, though people generally call it so, because there is no belief in, recognition of, or of a higher unseen authority, or a controlling power, but emotions and morality connected therewith, (iii) is a moral philosophy in pursuit of wisdom and knowledge, norms and laws, and all other things connected therewith.

In Buddhism, there is nothing to speculate or conjecture, because it is a doctrine, par excellence, leading to the attainment of Nibbana ceasing rebirth. Every Buddhist aspires to attain this condition in this life or in the life to come. Buddha is the greatest man who ever lived in this world of ours, dominating the whole of human history, by his boundless compassion and unrestricted loving kindness, and still his doctrine stands supreme above others.

Buddhism stands unique since it denies in the existence of a soul (ego). Buddha said that the idea of a soul is an imaginary, false and baseless belief, which has no corresponding reality, but produces harmful thoughts, selfish desire, craving, attachment, hatred, ill-will, conceit, pride, egoism and other defilements, impurities and problems. In short, to this false view can be traced all the evils in the world which we experience. Soul is usually explained as the principle of life, the ultimate identity of a person or the immortal constituent of self.

There is nothing called 'sin' in Buddhism in which actions are merely termed as meritorious ('kusala') and demeritorious 'akusala'). Sin is rebellion against God. The word 'sin' is derived from the Latin root 'sontis' meaning guilty, explained either as mortal sin (unpardonable sin) or venial sin (pardonable sin).

According to dogmatic theology, sin signifies purposeful disobedience to the Will of God, or any action offensive or blasphemous to God, or to speak profanely or impiously of God. Buddhists do not believe in confession (acknowledgement of sin to a priest) as laid down in Catholicism.

John Walters writing about the Buddhist idea of sin, says that it differes somewhat from the Christian idea. Sin to the Buddhist is mere ignorance or stupidity. It is said that the wicked man is an ignorant man and does not need punishment and condemnation, so much as he needs instructions. "He is not regarded as violating God's commands, or as one who must beg for divine mercy and forgiveness. Buddhism does not believe that a sinner can escape the consequences in prayerful attempts to bargain with God".

Among the founders of world religions, the Buddha was the only teacher who did not claim to be a prophet, or incarnation of a god or a super being above mankind. He was a man pure and simple, and devoted his entire life to holiness. He was a noble prince of the Sakya clan, the only son of king Suddhodana of the ancient Kapilavattu (modern Piprawa on the Nepal border in North India).

The prince Siddhartha Gautama, having understood the remorseless of nature, renounced the world at the age of 29 years, after seeing the four prognosticated signs (a sick man, an old man, a corpse and a hermit, as he walked along in measured steps). He now desired to become a recluse, away from the burden of civil life, to find a panacea for the ills of suffering faced by mankind, during their voyage in the 'samsara' (cycle of rebirths). Leaving behind his young wife and the infant child Rahula, he ventured into the forest, in the fulfilment of his cherished desire to wear the yellow robe and become a recluse with shaven head.

At the time when the prince was born there was a great spiritual revolution, and many youngmen left their homes to lead an ascetic life given to celibacy and holiness. The recluse Siddhartha, underwent hectic mortification of the flesh given to asceticism for 6 years, under the erudite teachers Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputra who were reputed for their psychic powers. But their teachings did not satisfy him. Therefore, he left them and followed the Middle Path (Majjhima Patipada'), rejecting the extremes of 'attakilamatanuyoga' (self-mortification) and 'kamasukkhallikanuyoga' (self-indulgence). With strenuous effort, he attained Enlightenment (Buddhahood) illuminating the world by his success.

After attaining Enlightenment, he delivered his first discourse to the five ascetics on Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. Addressing them he said "Open ye your ears, O bhikkus, deliverance from death is found. I teach you. I preach the law. If ye walk according to my teaching, ye shall be partakers in a short time of that for which sons of noble families have left their homes to lead a life of homelessness, it being the highest end of my spiritual effort. Ye shall, even in this present life apprehend the truth itself and see it face to face".

Buddhism is, generally, accepted as a moral philosophy to lead mankind in the proper path by doing good and avoiding evil. The Buddha himself has expressed that his teaching is both deep and recondite, and anyone could follow it who is intelligent enough to understand it. He admonished his disciples to be a refuge to themselves' and never to seek refuge in, or help from anyone else. He taught, encouraged and stimulated each person to develop himself, and to work out his own emancipation, because man has the power to liberate him self from all earthly bondage, through his own personal effort and intelligence.

Buddha based his doctrine on the Four Noble Truths, viz: suffering ('dukkha'), cause of suffering ('samudaya'), destruction of suffering ('nirodha') and the path leading to the cessation of suffering ('magga'). The first is to be comprehended, the second (craving) is to be eradicated, the third (Nibbana) is to be realised, and the fourth (the Noble Eightfold Path) is to be developed. This is the philosophy of the Buddha for the deliverance of mankind from being born again, or the cessation of continuity of becoming, i.e., 'Bhavanirodha' (the attainment of Nibbana).

The Noble Eightfold Path, also known as the Middle Way, consists eight factors, namely right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. Practically, the whole teaching of the Buddha, to which he devoted himself during his 45 years of ministration, deals in some way or another, with this Path. He explained it in different ways and in different words, to different people, at different times, according to mental development and capacity of a person, to understand and follow the teachings of the Buddha. In classical terminology, it is known as 'Dukkhanirodhagaminipatipada ariyasacca'.

This Middle Way is neither a metaphysical path nor a ritualistic path, neither dogmatism nor scepticism, neither self-indulgence nor self-mortification, neither externalism nor nihilism, neither pessimism nor optimism, but the path for Enlightenment as the means of deliverance from suffering, and man is solely responsible for his own pains or pleasures. Buddhism is clear, reasonable and gives complete answerers to all important aspects and questions about our lives.

These eight factors aim in promoting and perfecting the three essentials of Buddhist discipline, viz. Ethical conduct ('sila'), concentration ('samadhi') and wisdom (panna').

Ethical conduct is built on the conception of morality with compassion towards all beings. Concentration means securing a firm footing on the ground of morality where the aspirant embarks upon the higher practice on the control and culture of the mind. Beyond morality is wisdom. The base of Buddhism is morality and wisdom is its apex. It is the right understanding of the nature of the world in the light of transiency ('anicca'), sorrowfulenss ('dukkha') and soullessness ('anatta').

Wisdom leads to the state of 'dhyana' (psychic faculty), generally called trance. Wisdom covers a very wild field, comprising understanding, knowledge, and insight specific to Buddhism. Wisdom being the apex of Buddhism, is the first factor of the Noble Eightfold Path.

It is one of the seven factors of Enlightenment, some of the four means of accomplishment, one of the five powers ('pannabala') and one of the five controlling faculties ('panna indriya).

The highest morality is inculcated in the system of Buddhist thought, since it permits freedom of thought and opinion, sets its norms against persecution and cruelty and recognises the right of animals. Liquor, drugs and opium and all that tends to destroy the composure of the mind are discountenanced. When considering the fraternity of people, Buddhism acknowledges no caste system and admits the perfect equality of all men, as it proclaims the universal brotherhood.

Buddhism shows the errors of monotheism, atheism, fatalism, nihilism, agnosticism, polytheism, materialism, sensualism, asceticism, spiritualism and deism by analysing the contents of each of the beliefs. Let all beings be happy!

The Buddha’s dispensation is founded upon three guiding ideals or objects of veneration: the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. The Buddha is the teacher, the Dhamma is the teaching and the Sangha is the community of those who have realized the teaching and embody it in their lives. These three are together called the Three Jewels or Triple Gem. They are called the Three Jewels because for one who is seeking the way to liberation, they are the most precious things in the World.

The word ‘Sangha’ means those who are joined together, thus a Community. However, "Sangha" does not refer to the entire Buddhist Community, but to the two kinds of Communities within the larger Buddhist Society:

They are -

The Noble Sangha (Ariya Sangha).The community of the Buddha’s true disciples.

The conventional Sangha. Fully ordained monks and nuns.

In principle, the word Sangha includes bhikkhunis - that is, fully ordained nuns - but in Theravada countries the full ordination lineage for women has become defunct, though there continue to exist independent orders of nuns.

The holy life requires purified conduct but household life stimulates many desires that run contrary to pure conduct. The homeless life is a life of meditation calling for constant mindfulness, clear awareness and contemplation. All this needs time, a calm environment, freedom from external pressures and responsibility. The Buddha founded in Sangha in order to provide such objective conditions.

The bhikkhu, the Buddhist monk, is not a priest; he does not function as an intermediary between the laity and any divine power, not even between the lay person and the Buddha. He does not administer sacraments, pronounce absolution or perform any ritual needed for salvation. The main task of a bhikkhu is to cultivate himself along the path laid down by the Buddha, the path of moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom.

The historical person we know as the Buddha was an Indian prince of the Sakya people living in North India. He renounced the right to the throne, became a religious seeker early in his life and then after reaching enlightenment he became a spiritual teacher. His given name was SIDDHARTHA and his clan name was GOTAMA. He was not called the Buddha in his early years, but acquired this designation only in his 35th year after he attained enlightenment.

The word Buddha is not simply a title given to one particular individual, but it is a designation given to a kind of individual. It represents not a single unique person, but a type of person. Only one Buddha can appear in any historical period. But throughout the cycles of world evolution, there have been many Buddhas appearing one at a time separated by vast intervals. Siddhartha Gotama is only the most recent Buddha and there will be many more Buddhas to come.

According to Buddhist teachings the physical universe has countless world systems with many planes of existence (e.g. heavenly, human, animal etc.). In all those planes, life is subject to impermanence, to arising and passing away, to birth, growth, ageing and passing away. Due to impermanence, existence is seen to be fundamentally unsatisfactory and subject to suffering.

Outside the phenomenal universe there exists another state, an unconditional state, a state of perfect bliss, of unfading peace. This state is called NIBBANA in Pali.

Also there exists a path, a way which leads from one state to another, from theimpermanence and suffering of the round of becoming to the bliss and peace of NIBBANA.This is the Noble Eightfold Path.

In the history of any particular world system there will be a time when this path isknown and followed, there will be people who practice the path and who reach theattainment of Nibbana. But inevitably there comes a time when that path falls into neglectand the knowledge of the path fades from people's minds until the path disappears andbecomes lost. Then follows a period of spiritual darkness. This could be a period ofmillions of years, of many eons.

Eventually there arises a being, a man who by his own innate wisdom, by his ownstriving and energy, without any guide or teacher, rediscovers that lost path todeliverance. Having rediscovered the path, he follows it to the end, he reaches theattainment of Nibbana, and then out of compassion for others who are afflicted bysuffering he comes back to proclaim that path, to make it known again to the world. Aperson who accomplishes this twofold task of rediscovering the path and making it knownagain to the world is called a Buddha.

The Buddha always comes as a human being. He begins like us, caught up in the round ofsuffering. However he is not an ordinary man. He is an extraordinary man. With immensepotential of intelligence, energy, and compassion which he has developed through countlesslifetimes of self-cultivation he has prepared himself for his future role as a Buddha byperfecting in himself the qualities, the virtues, the powers required of a world teacher.By making the path known to the world, Buddha opens the road to deliverance for allhumanity so that others can follow the path and reach liberation.

Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam and there subdivisions. Buddhism plays a significant role in Kandy with the two main Monastic orders, Malwatte and Asgiriya fraternities together with numerous temples of the Country attached to them.   TheTemple of the Sacred Tooth Relic constitutes the premier Buddhist Institution of Sri Lanka and remains the cynosure of the world Buddhist and is a great tourist attraction. The annual pageant (Esala Perahera) constitutes the greatest religious festival of Sri Lanka which attract thousands of pilgrims as well as tourists from all over the world. The web site on the Sri Dalada maligawa attempts to introduce all its aspects of history, rituals, cultural and other social activities.

More than 2100 years old, Mirisawetiya is one of the most ancient Dagabas in Sri Lanka . Built by the great king Dutugemunu, this Maginficant Structure is a must see for any visitor to the sacred city of Anuradhapuraya.

It is believed that the great king Dutugemunu made many wishes here that have come true during his lifetime.

King Dutugemunu built it as a Dagoba of the "Mahavihara" fraternity but as the monks started living there, it sees that Mirisawetiya developed as a separate monastery. However it is believed that it would have functioned as a monastery belonging to the Mahavihara Fraternity.

Several Kings, at different intervals made renovations to the Dagaba. Among them are King Gajabahu 1 (112-134 AC), and King Voharika Tissa (214-236 AC).

King Gajabahu 1: Put a new coating on Mirisawet iya

King Voharika Tissa: Restored the umbrella of the Dagoba and rebuilt a wall around the Dagaba)

The stupa and other buildings needed restoration after the Chola invasion and it is said that King Kassapa V (914-923 AC) did the restoration.

King Kassapa V also is said to have built a massive mansion called "The Chandana Prasada", adjoining the Temple to house the scared hair relic (keshadathu), which was supposed to have been brought to Sri Lanka during the time of King Moggalana (495-513 AC)

The Dagaba was again damaged by the recurrent Chola invasions and it is said that King Parakaramabahu 1(1153-1186 AC) did a comprehensive restoration and built the stupa to a height of 120 feet.

The last recorded renovations around that period were done by King Nissankamalla (1187-1196 AC).

If you question yourself, how you have become a Buddhist or Christian or Muslim or Hindu, the most common answer would be "by birth". The religion for any child is a blind faith inherited from parents and influenced by environment, society and culture being brought up, further moulded by education. When the inquiring age comes up, the exploration of laid down faith would begin.
At the basic level, at least major religions in the world would emphasise people on one common aspect in life: to be good and avoid bad. But when it goes deep down there would be contradictions among religions, especially in spiritual aspects.

The Buddha's doctrine becomes even more advanced at its depth. Starting from Four Noble Truths, Noble Eight-fold Path, Five Aggregates, Five Cosmic Laws, Conditioned Genesis, Abhidhamma, etc. are the teachings of Buddha, which contains the depth of the philosophy.

These are quite complex areas to understand not only for a non-Buddhist, but also for an average Buddhist, This leads to the misconception that Buddhism is a deep and complicated doctrine meant for a particular community. There are some misinterpretations that Buddhism is a dark doctrine that keeps people away from the merriments of life too.

A Buddhist has two alternative paths: lead a family life or enter the monkhood. Enlightenment (Nibbana) is the ultimate expectation of any Buddhist. Entering the monkhood is the best option to attain Nibbana. However it doesn't imply that you cannot reach Enlightenment without being a monk.

Attaining Nibbana requires an enormous amount of efforts during Samsara. If a layman can dedicate the whole life for this purpose, there is no requirement of entering monkhood. The lay life, however, means many obstacles of attachments and desires; entering monkhood is the better option in this backdrop.
Five Precepts
Buddha has recommended both types of life: a successful lay life and the monk life both with the ultimate objective of Nibbana in mind.
One of the most fundamental teachings in Buddhism is Five Precepts - the basic "Code of Conduct" for lay Buddhists. Adhering to five precepts is not impossible. Every Buddhist is supposed to have the determination to protect five precepts. If it is breached at a particular instance, then it is a matter of re-determining. Firm determination and continuous effort would make it possible to follow the precepts to the greatest extent as a lay person.

"Five precepts" is not just about abhorring evil. Every precept has a broader meaning than the common meaning. For example the first precept discourages injuring and torturing.
In a broader explanation killing should be volitional to breach the first precept. It also should satisfy five factors to breach the first precept: (1) target is a living being, (2) the knowledge that the target is alive, (3) intentional thought of killing, (4) effort to kill, (5) death caused as a result of killer's action.
In addition, the type of the target affects the severity of killing too. Killing a man is more serious than killing an animal. Buddhism explains the benefits you get from adhering to five precepts and the consequences you get by breaching. It is the individual choice to take his or her way.
It is important to know the benefits by following five precepts. First is none other than "self satisfaction". We do everything in our life to satisfy ourselves. If you have the feeling that you have not committed any killing, stealing and so on, that itself is a great satisfaction.
A person, known as "harmless", would be highly appreciated and respected. Such reputation and good name makes you shine and life would be happier. Everybody would trust you. You would be able to have a good family life. Everybody will trust your word as you do not lie and you are always with your right mentality, without being heedless at any occasion.

As already explained "Code of Conduct" for lay people in Buddhism is simple and nothing complicated to understand and follow. It also does not thwart enjoying life, but leads to a much happier state of life.
Meanwhile a Buddhist should also consider the importance of working out on achieving the ultimate objective, while following the five precepts in everyday life; that's why the monthly observance of Sil is advised.
By taking the refuge of eight or more precepts, which is higher than the ordinary conduct, the Buddhist would get used to the way of approaching the ultimate goal of Nibbana.
Singalovada Sutta
The Buddha preached many other teachings for lay life apart from five precepts. Singalovada Sutta is one good guideline for the betterment of the family, society, community and the whole world.
The Buddha preached this sermon to a householder named Singalaka, who had been worshiping six quarters blindly on an advice by his father. In Singalovada Sutta, the Buddha enriched these six quarters for a meaningful worship.

Singalovada Sutta contains six perils: addiction to intoxicants, frequenting streets at unseemly hours, haunting the fairs, getting involved with gambling, associating evil companions and the habit of idleness.
The Sutta further explains five types of bad friends and five types of good friends found in daily life. Most importantly it gives a detailed explanation on duties towards various human relationships in the society: briefly, children and parents as eastern quarter, pupils and teachers as southern quarter, wife and husband as western quarter, clansman and friends as northern quarter, master and servant (employees) as nadir quarter, and finally clansman and monk or clergy as zenith quarter.

Singalovada Sutta's duties are very simple and practicable even in today's context. It contains best of the advice on leading a simple and successful lay life with all the happiness.
Similarly, there is a sufficient amount of teachings in Buddhism, which makes your life happy and successful. It's a matter of following them.

When you know how to lead a successful lay life, you would be qualified to select the other alternative path towards Nibbana at any stage of life. A lay person, who lives according to the way Buddha has preached, will never find it difficult to understand the so called intricacy of doctrine.

Meditation, or more accurately concentration (samadhi), is an essential factor to be developed towards enlightenment (Nibbana). The purpose of meditation is to clear the mind of mental defilements (kilesa) thereby facilitating wisdom (panna).

This allows for clear insight into the reality of all things, leading one on to greater peace and happiness. Buddhist meditation is aimed at attacking the three unskilful roots of greed/desire (lobha), aversion/anger (dosa) and confused/misguided thinking (moha) that are inherent in all beings, blinding and preventing them from seeing the true nature of existence. 

Meditation can be done anywhere and at anytime, whether walking, standing still, sitting or lying down. For best results however, it helps to be seated in a secluded and quite place. When meditating concentrate purely and exclusively on the meditation subject and not other things. 

The untrained mind has a natural tendency to go off on different tangents and when this happens simply bring it back to the topic of the meditation and resume with it. Before starting the meditation, stop all thinking, planning, worrying and other such mental activity so that the mind becomes quiet and peaceful. 

The standard practice is to close the eyes during meditation, but they can be kept half-open or fully open as well; see what works best for you. A cushion can be used to sit on while utilising the full or half-lotus position. Morality (sila) is a required pre-requisite for effective meditation.

The meditation on loving-kindness (metta) clears the mind primarily of defilements arising from the aversion, encompassing harmful qualities such as anger, hatred, bitterness, resentment, jealousy, irritation, annoyance, etc. The easiest method for doing this meditation is to utter these lines either in one’s thoughts or out loud while concentrating fully on the meaning behind them. 

Loving-kindness should be developed towards oneself first by uttering/wishing “May I be happy and well” a few times, for example, three times, followed by “May all beings be happy and well” towards all being without exception for as long as one desires. 

The metta meditation can also be developed ‘on the go’ in daily life by repeating these thoughts/wishes of kindness towards all beings, including oneself, especially when they cause aversion to arise within oneself.

The awareness of breath meditation (Ana-Pana-Sati) clears the mind primarily of defilements arising from the confused/misguided thinking and increases levels of concentration as well as wisdom. 

The best way to perform this meditation is to concentrate on and become fully aware of the incoming and outgoing breath as it enters and leaves the body and to maintain this concentration at a stretch for as long as possible. If concentration breaks, simply return to watching the breath and resume concentration.

It is important not to try controlling or forcing the breath, but simply allow it to flow in and out on its own accord while observing it. This meditation can be developed as a factor of mindfulness ‘on the go’ in daily life by becoming aware of the breathing process as it occurs.

The meditation on the foulness of the body (asubha bhavana) primarily decreases desire for the flesh (lust) and clears such related defilements arising from greed/desire. Either the cemetery/corpse contemplation or the contemplation on the foulness of the body can be utilised for this meditation.

Mental visualisation of bodily foulness can also be used as a technique in this meditation. Once the principle behind this meditation technique is understood (seeing the foulness of the body) any foul aspect of the body can be focused on for effect. This meditation can also be developed while ‘on the go’ by reflecting on the unpleasant side of any sensually attractive/pleasant objects (both external to the ‘outer’ world and ‘internal’ to the mind) that are encountered in daily life. 

Buddhist meditation aims developing wisdom and insight into reality by attacking the three unskilful roots of greed/desire, aversion/anger and confused/misguided thinking that are inherent in all beings. Meditation can be done anywhere and at anytime, however a private and secluded place at a time when one is at ease is best.

The untrained mind has a natural tendency of getting distracted but should be brought back to the meditation subject whenever this occurs. Morality is an essential pre-requisite for effective meditation. 

The meditations on loving-kindness, awareness of breath and the contemplation on the foulness of the body primarily clear the mind of defilements arising from aversion/anger, confused/misguided thinking and greed/desire respectively. These meditation techniques can be developed ‘on the go’ in daily life for the better results and greater mental purity. 

May you master Buddhist meditation and attain the lasting peace of Nibbana!

 For more than a thousand years after the fourth council, Buddhism flourished and enjoyed the patronage of many kings throughout India. Great monastic universities like that of Nalanda (near Rajagriha) were built and generations of scholars from India as well as the rest of Asia were taught there. Magnificent Buddhist paintings, sculptures and other monuments were created, many of which can still be seen today, for example, at Ajanta.

During this period, Buddhist scholars composed outstanding works in the fields of Ethics, Philosophy and even Logic. Eminent scholars like Nagarjuna and the two brothers, Asanga and Vasubhandu, made important contributions to the philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism. As a result of their efforts, Mahayana Buddhism gained greater popularity throughout India.

Nagarjuna was born in the southern part of India towards the end of the first century CE According to legend, his parents had long wanted a son, so they rejoiced at his birth. However, their happiness soon turned to sorrow when a local soothsayer told them that the boy would not live beyond the age of seven.

When the boy’s seventh birthday drew near, his parents, who did not want to see him die before their eyes, sent him on a journey accompanied by attendants. At the great monastic university of Nalanda, Nagarjuna met a renowned Buddhist monk. This monk advised him that he could escape from his premature death by renouncing the family life and reciting the mantra of the Buddha of Limitless Life (Amitayus).

Nagarjuna did as he was advised and lived to become one of the greatest philosophers Buddhism has ever known.

Nagarjuna wrote many books explaining the profound teaching of “Emptiness”. These works rank among the best of the philosophical writings ever produced by man. Widely regarded as a Bodhisattva, Nagarjuna gained great fame in India.Later, when Buddhism reached China, Japan, Tibet and Mongolia, he also received the reverence of Buddhists in these countries.

The two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu, were well known Buddhist scholars who lived in the fourth century CE Like Nagaduna, they contributed greatly to Buddhist philosophy

Both wrote many books describing the role of the mind in the origin of suffering and in the attainment of buddhahood. Buddhists of the Mahayana tradition believe that Asanga received instruction directly from Maitreya, the future Buddha, and wrote down what he was taught for the benefit of others.

As Mahayana Buddhism became more popular, many Buddhists in India began to look to the great Buddhas and Bodhisattvas like Amitabha, Avalokiteshvara and Manjushri, for encouragement and inspiration. During this period, there was an increase in the creation of images representing these Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. These images served as a reminder to the Mahayana Buddhists of the qualities of buddhahood such as limitless life, compassion and wisdom.

Vajrayana Buddhism (the Diamond Way) also appeared during this period. Like Mahayana, Vajrayana Buddhism teaches that buddhahood is attainable by all. It differs from Mahayana, however, in some of the methods that it uses for achieving this goal. These methods, which include meditation upon special forms of the Buddha and the recitation of mantras, can help one attain Buddhahood more quickly.

After the thirteenth century, Buddhism largely disappeared from India, leaving only a few Buddhist communities in the Himalayas and in what is now Bangladesh. It left, however, a lasting impression on Indian life and culture.

The ideas of renunciation, non-violence, karma and freedom from rebirth as they are now found in Indian religion, owe much to Buddhist influence. In addition, Buddhism has contributed its sense of social justice, tolerance and democracy to Indian life. In recent years, Buddhism has again won new followers and fresh recognition in India.

Celibacy is deliberate refraining from sexual activity usually in connection with a religious role or practice. It has existed in some form in most religious and may indicate a person’s ritual purity or may be adopted to facilitate spiritual advancement. In Hinduism, “holy men” (or women) who have left ordinary secular life to seek final liberation are celibate.

Islam has no institutional celibacy, though individuals can embrace it for personal spiritual advancement. Judaism has prescribed periods of abstinence, but long-term celibacy has not played a large role.

The early Christian Church regarded celibacy superior to marriage. It has been the role for Roman Catholic Clergy, though clerical celibacy was never adopted by Protestantism since 12th century .

Did Buddha advocate celibacy?

Buddhism is not against sex; it is natural sensual pleasure and very much a part of the worldly life. Why then did the Buddha advocate celibacy as a precept? Is it not unfair and against Nature?

Observance of celibacy for spiritual development was not a new religious precept at the Buddha’s time. All the other existing religions in India during the time of the Buddha also had introduced this practice. Even today some Hindus and Catholics do observe this as a vow.

Buddhists who have renounced the worldly life voluntarily as in case of Bhikkus and Bhikkunis and some “Upasikas” observe this precept because they are fully aware of the commitments and disturbances which come along if one commits oneself to the life of a family person. 

It is common knowledge that married life can affect or curtail spiritual development when craving for sex and attachment occupies the mind and temptation eclipses peace and purity of the mind.

Significance of celibacy in Buddhism

People tend to ask, “If the Buddha did not preach against married life, why then did He advocate celibacy as one of the important precepts to be observed and why did He advise people to avoid sex and renounce worldly life?”

Quite notedly renunciation is not compulsory in Buddhism. It is not obligatory to renounce the worldly life totally to practise Buddhism. You can develop your religions principles according to the needs of a laylife.

However, when you have progressed and attained greater wisdom and realise that the layman’s way of life is not conducive for the ultimate development of the purification of the Mind, you may choose to renounce the wordly life and concentrate more on spiritual development.

The Buddha recommended celibacy because sex and marriage are not conductive to ultimate peace and purity of the mind and renunciation is necessary if one wishes to gain spiritual development and perfection at the highest level. But this renunciation should come naturally and must never be forced.

Celibacy and responsibility

The Buddha experienced his worldly life as a prince, husband and a father before his renunciation and he knew what married life entailed. Some non-Buddhists sometimes say that Prince Siddhartha was selfish and cruel and that it was not fair for him to desert his wife and child. In actual fact, Prince Siddhartha did not desert his family without a sense of responsibility. 

He never had any misunderstanding with his wife. He had same love and attachment towards his wife and child as any normal person would have, perhaps even greater. 

The difference was that his love was not mere physical and selfish love, he had the courage and understanding to detach that emotional and selfish love for a good cause. His sacrifice is considered more noble because he set aside his personal needs and desires to serve the mankind for all time. 

The main aim of his renunciation was not only for his own happiness, peace or salvation but for the sake of mankind. 

Had he remained in the royal palace, his service would have been confined to only his family or his kingdom and that is why he decided to renounce everything to gain enlightenment and then to enlighten others who were suffering in ignorance. 

Thus one of Buddha’s earliest tasks after achieving Enlightenment was to return to his palace to enlighten the members of his family including his wife and son. Buddha served his family and paved the way for their salvation, peace and happiness. 

Therefore no one can say that Buddha was a cruel or selfish father. With his high degree of spiritual development, the Buddha knew that marriage was a temporary phase while Enlightenment was eternal and for the good of all mankind. 

The Buddha knew that his wife and son would not starve in his absence and that other members of his family would willingly look after his dependents. When He gained Enlightenment he was able to give them something no other father could give - the freedom from slavery to attachment.

In general, ‘Buddha’ means ‘Awakened One’, someone who has awakened from the sleep of ignorance and sees things as they really are. A Buddha is a person completely free from all faults and mental obstructions.

There are many people who have become Buddhas in the past, and many people will become Buddhas in the future. There is nothing that Buddha does not know.

Because he has awakened from the sleep of ignorance and has removed all obstructions from his mind, he knows everything of the past, present, and future, directly and simultaneously. Moreover, Buddha has great compassion which is completely impartial, embracing all living beings without discrimination.

He benefits all living beings without exception by emanating various forms throughout the universe, and by bestowing his blessings on their minds. Through receiving Buddha’s blessings, all being, even the lowliest animals, sometimes develop peaceful and virtuous states of mind.

Eventually, through meeting an emanation of Buddha in the form of a Spiritual Guide, everyone will have the opportunity to enter the path to liberation and enlightenment. As the great Indian Buddhist scholar Nagarjuna said, there is no one who has not received help from the Buddha.

Buddha’s Good Qualities

It is impossible to describe all the good qualities of a Buddha. A Buddha’s compassion, wisdom, and power are completely beyond conception. With nothing left to obscure his mind, he sees all phenomena throughout the universe as clearly as he sees a jewel held in the palm of his hand.
Through the force of his or her compassion, a Buddha spontaneously does whatever is appropriate to benefit others. He has no need to think about what is the best way to help living beings - he naturally and effortlessly acts in the most beneficial way.
Just as the sun does not need to motivate itself to radiate light and heat but does so simply because light and heat are its very nature, so a Buddha does not need to motivate himself to benefit others but does so simply because being beneficial is his very nature.

Emanations of Buddha

Like the reflections of the moon that effortlessly appear in any body of still water, a Buddha’s emanations spontaneously appear wherever living beings’ minds are capable of perceiving them. Buddhas can emanate in any form whatsoever to help living beings. Sometimes they manifest as Buddhists and sometimes as non-Buddhists.
They can manifest as women or men, monarchs or tramps, law-abiding citizens or criminals. They can even manifest as animals, as wind or rain, or as mountains or islands. Unless you are a Buddha, we cannot possibly say who or what is an emanation of a Buddha.

The Supreme Emanation

Of all the ways in which a Buddha helps living beings, the supreme way is by emanation as a Spiritual Guide. Through his or her teachings and immaculate example, an authentic Spiritual Guide leads his or her disciples along the spiritual path to liberation and enlightenment.
If we meet a qualified Mahayana Spiritual Guide and put into practice everything he or she teaches, we shall definitely attain full enlightenment and become a Conqueror Buddha. We shall then be in a position to repay the kindness of all living beings by liberating them from the sufferings of samsara and leading them to the supreme bliss of Buddhahood.

The history of the Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama is the last Buddha’s lay name. He is generally recognised as the Supreme Buddha (Sammasambuddha) of our age.
The time of his birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th century historians date his lifetime from about 563 BCE; more recently, however, at a specialist symposium on this question, the majority of those scholars who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha’s death, with others supporting earlier or later dates.

Gautama, also known as Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni (“sage of the Shakyas”), is the key figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules were said to have been summarised after his death and memorised by the monk community.

Passed down by oral tradition, the Tripitaka, the collection of teachings attributed to Gautama by the Theravada, was committed to writing about 400 years later. “Scholars are increasingly reluctant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha’s life and teachings.”

Last two episodes explained evil thoughts or immoral mental states. This episode and next to come would be on “Meritorious thoughts”, the “Moral Mental States” or Kusala Chethasika which are associated with Moral Consciousness (Kusala Chiththa).

Out of 52 Chethasikas the first 13 were Annasamana Chethasikas which was again divided as Sabba Chiththa Sadharana (7) and Prakirnaka (6). The second category was Akusala Chethasika and was 14 in numbers which makes the number of Kusala Chethasikas 25. These Chethasikas are categorized as below;

• Common to Beautiful – Sobhana Sadharana                - 19
• Abstinences – Virathi                                                   - 3
• Illimitables – Appamanna                                             - 2
• Wisdom – Panna                                                         - 1

Recall 24 types of Kusala Chiththas mentioned in Chiththa Paramaththa. First 19 of moral mental states are contained in all Kusala Chiththas, hence they are called as Sobhana Sadharana Chethasikas. The 19 of them are listed below;

1. Saddha – Confidence
2. Sathi – Mindfulness
3. Hiri – Shame
4. Oththappa – Dread
5. Alobha – Non-attachment
6. Adhosha – Goodwill
7. Thathramajjaththatha – Equanimity
8. Kayapassaddhi – Tranquility of mental states
9. Chiththapassaddhi – Tranquility of mind
10. Kayalahutha – Lightness of mental states
11. Chiththalahutha – Lightness of mind
12. Kayamudhutha – Pliancy of mental states
13. Chiththamudhutha – Pliancy of mind
14. Kayakammannatha – Adaptability of mental states
15. Chiththakammannatha – Adaptability of mind
16. Kayapagunnatha – Proficiency of mental states
17. Chiththpagunnatha – Proficiency of mind
18. Kayujjukutha – Rectitude of mental states
19. Chiththyjukatha – Rectitude of mind

The three Abstinences or Virathi Chethasikas are as follows;

20. Samma Vacha – Right Speech
21. Samma Kammantha – Right Action
22. Samma Ajeeva – Right Livelihood

Two of the Illimitables or Appamanna Chethasikas are;

23. Karuna – Compassion
24. Mudutha – Appreciative or Sympathetic Joy

Finally,

25. Panna – Wisdom

These 25 mental states contains in Kusala Chiththas in various degrees depending on the situation. From next episode onwards each of these Chethasika would be described in detail.

Recall the third episode titled “When committing evil acts” and the story of “Bruce”. 8 types of Consciousness rooted in Attachment (Lobha Mulika Chiththas) were explained at first in that episode. In addition to other Chethasikas which feature in common, following three Chethasikas are particular to Lobha Mulika Chiththas. They are together bundled as Lobha Thrikaya.

(5) Lobha – Attachment

Similar explanation could be given as in the third episode. Lobha or attachment is the likeness, lust, greed or passion for beautiful, attractive or desirable sensual objects. This Chethasika is contained in all 8 types of Lobha Mulika Chiththas.

(6) Dhitti – Misbelief

Impression that there is no sin and merit, no results of bad kamma, nothing wrong with doing any evil act to accomplish one’s mission is a “False View”. “Dhitti” refers to this false view. In expansion this is the Michcha Dhitti. This Chethasika is contained in 4 of the Dhittigatha Samprayuktha Lobha Mulika Chiththas.

(7) Mana – Conceit

This is the mental state of thinking that self is Supreme than another (Seiya Mana), Equal to another (Sadhisa Mana) or Minor than another (Heena Mana) based on undue facts. For example, Dewadaththa equalized himself with Buddha as he was his brother-in-law. He tried to become Buddha by killing Buddha just as Ajasaththa became King by killing his father. This is also an immoral mental state and contain in 4 of the Dhittigatha Viprayuktha Lobha Mulika Chiththas.

The next four Chethasikas bundled by the name “Dwesha Chathushkaya” particularly contains in two of the Consciousness rooted in ill-will or aversion (Dwesha Mulika Chiththas).

(8) Dosha – Hatred

This is simply the anger, hatred, ill-will or aversion which arises with a Dwesha Mulika Chiththas. There it was named as Patigha.

(9) Issa – Jealousy

This is the mental state of Jealousy. It is the characteristic of envying others prosperity and success. It is the incapability of bearing others being treated reasonably. Obviously Jealousy is connected with hatred so are contained in Dwesha Mulika Chiththas.

(10) Machchariya – Avarice

This is the concealment of one’s own property. It is the dislikeness of others knowing that oneself has wealth or property. “Mattakundali Story” is the best example for this feature. When Dwesha Mulika Chiththas arise due to a reason of this nature, Machchariya Chethasika is present.

(11) Kukkuchcha – Worry

This is one of the Hindrances taken together with Uddhachcha. This is the remorse over committed evil and good that is not done. Its chief characteristic is grieving and repenting over these two situations.

The next two Chethasikas are mentioned together in many texts. However, in Abhidhamma they are two Chethasikas usually arise together. These two are also together taken as one of the Hindrances. These two may arise in 5 of the Prompted or Sasankharika Chiththas out of 12 types of Akusala Chiththas.

(12) Thina – Sloth

This is the shrinking state or laziness of mind. It pulls from back of mind engaging in work. It is opposed to the Effort or Viriya Chethasika. It is the sickness of the mind.

(13) Midhdha – Torpor

As Thina is the sickness of mind, Middha is the sickness of mental factors. It is the gloomy state or laziness of mental states. Yet again it drags one of doing any work and opposed to the Effort.

(14) Vichikichcha – Doubt

Vichikichcha is the mental state that it is incapable of deciding that it is as such. This is again one of the Five Hindrances and commonly known as the doubt about 8 places so as Buddha, Dhamma and etc.

Thus ends 14 types of Immoral Mental States. It should be mentioned again that the above explanation of these Chethasikas are very simply done to lay a foundation on basics of Abhidhamma. One who wishes to learn in depth is advised to read advance Abhidhamma Books.

In our daily life, we come across some unhappy feelings. Particularly, when one is engaging in some unwholesome act, thoughts occur in mind are not pleasant. People do evil acts with evil thoughts. Those evil thoughts are associated with evil minds. This episode introduces the evil thoughts associated with evil minds.

In Chiththa Paramaththa 12 types of Akusala Chiththas were described. Associated with those Chiththas there are 14 types of Chethasikas. Those are known as “Immoral Mental States” or Akusala Chethasikas. 14 of them could be categorized as below;

• Moha Chathushkaya

1. Moha – Delusion
2. Ahirika – Shamelessness to commit wrong
3. Anoththappa - Fearlessness to commit wrong
4. Uddhachcha – Restlessness

• Lobha Thrikaya

5. Lobha – Attachment
6. Dhitti – Misbelief
7. Mana – Conceit

• Dhosha Chathushkaya

8. Dhosha – Hatred
9. Issa – Jealousy
10. Machchariya – Avarice 
11. Kukkuchcha – Worry

12. Thina – Sloth
13. Midhdha – Torpor
14. Vichikichcha – Doubt

The first four mental states are common to every immoral consciousness. Therefore, they are known as Sabba Akusala Sadharana Chethasika. Lobha or Attachment is found in 8 types of Lobha Mulika Chiththas or the Consciousness rooted in attachment. Mibelief or Dhitti is found in 4 types of consciousness accompanied by wrong view (Dhittigatha Samprayuktha) and Conceit or Mana in 4 types disassociated with wrong view (Dhittigatha Viprayuktha).

Chethasikas contained in Dhosha Thrikaya is found with two types of consciousness rooted in illwill (Dwesha Mulika Chiththas). Sloth and Torpor (Thina – Middha) is found in 5 prompted consciousness (Sasankarika) of Akusala Chiththas and Doubt (Vichikichcha) is found only in the consciousness associated with doubt in Moha Mulika Chiththas.

Now each of these Chethasika would be elaborated in detail.

(1) Moha – Delusion

Moha clouds one’s knowledge with regard to Kamma and its consequences and the four noble truths. It obstructs one to understand the real nature of an object. When one is performing any evil act, the consciousness arise is always associated with this Chethasika.

(2) Ahirika – Shamelessness

This is not the ordinary shamelessness. This is the shamelessness to commit wrongful acts and of their consequences. The opposite of this Chethasika is Hiri and is a moral mental state. The one who doesn’t have Hiri would commit any evil act as that one is not ashamed of doing it. This Chethasika is also common to all immoral consciousness.

(3) Anoththappa – Fearlessness

This is again not the ordinary fearlessness or braveness. It is the fearlessness to commit any evil act and of their consequences. When one is performing any evil act that person is not fear of its consequences. Therefore, this mental state is also found in any immoral consciousness.

Usually these two Chethasikas: Hiri – Oththappa is found together. Even in the ordinary meaning these two are considered to be two of the dominant factors in the civilized world as its absence make the society wild.

(4) Uddhachcha – Restlessness

Being one of five hindrances, Uddhachcha is the unsettled state of mind. When one engages in an evil act, that person’s mind runs here and there due to the nature of that unwholesome act. This is the mental state with regard to that nature. Yet again this is together with above three Chethasikas common to all immoral consciousness.

In addition it’s worth mentioning here that there are moral mental states opposed to some of the above immoral mental states which would be described in future. In short, Panna or the Wisdom opposes Moha, Hiri & Oththappa opposes Ahirika & Anoththappa and Sathi may be taken as the opposition of Uddhachcha.

Universal mental states or Sabba Chiththa Sadharana Chethasikas which includes in every Chiththas were described in the previous episode. The second category of Annasamana Chethasika would feature with all Chiththas depending on the situation. They may or may not arise with a particular Chiththas at a certain instance. Therefore they are known as “Particular Mental States” or Prakirnaka Chethasikas. The six of them are;

8. Vithakka – Initial Application
9. Vichara – Sustained Application
10. Adhimokkha – Decision
11. Viriya – Effort
12. Prithi – Joy
13. Chandha – Conation

Recall Rupavachara Jhana Chiththas described in Chiththa Paramaththa. Three of the Chethasikas mentioned above (Vithakka, Vichara, Prithi) were included in those Chiththas, not in all five but in some. That is the best example to understand how Prakirnaka Chethasikas contain in Chiththas.

(8) Vithakka – Initial Application

Consciousness ascends to the object depending on Vithakka. While Manasikara direct the concomitants to the object Vithakka is the application of concomitants of the object. Vihtakka is not always required with Chiththas. For example once the consciousness is thoroughly enwrapped with the object, in a second instance Vithakka is not required for consciousness to ascend the object. That’s why in second Rupavachara Jhana, Vithakka is not present.

(9) Vichara – Sustained Application

 

Vichara is the continued exercise of the mind on the object. Examination the object which was ascended is its chief characteristic. The common example is that Vithakka is like a bee alighting into a flower and Vichara is the bee traversing and examining the flower.

(10) Adhimokkha – Decision

Adhimokkha is the mental state in the consciousness which decides about the object.

(11) Viriya – Effort

Viriya is the root of all achievements. It is the effort, exertion or the energy of a consciousness. Other concomitants are lifted, upholded, aided and supported by Viriya Chethasika. Viriya overcomes the idleness. There are many instances Viriya is mentioned in Buddhist Doctrine such as in “Five Powers” (Bala), “Four means of accomplishing one’s ends” (Sathara Irdhipadha), “Seven factors of Enlightment” (Saththa Bojjanga) and the “Right Effort” (Samma Vayama) in Noble Eight Fold Path. Not with every consciousness Viriya is present.

(12) Prithi – Joy

Prithi is the pleasurable interest which contains in some of the Chiththas such as first four of the Rupavachara Jhana Chiththas.

(13) Chanda – Conation

It is the likeness or wish-to-do state of mental state which may contain in a consciousness. This is three fold as;

1. Kamachchanda – sensual craving, one of five hindrances
2. Kattukamyata Chanda – the mere wish-to-do
3. Dhammachchanda – righteous wish which impelled Prince Sidhdhartha to renounce Royal pleasures.

As of their description it should be understood that not all Chiththas are necessary to contain the above Chethasikas. Depending on the situation and its application, above Chethasika would feature the Chiththas accordingly.

Thus end 13 types of Annasamana Chethasikas.

The one who wish to learn Abhidhamma in depth and expecting to apply it to understand and answer intricate questions of world and living beings must first by-heart 89 or 121 types of Chiththas with their proper meanings, functionality and applicability. Similarly, 52 types of Chethasikas are also to be by-hearted with an understanding of their meaning and applicability in various Chiththas at different situations. From this episode onward, the 52 types of Mental States would be described quite in detail.

Annasamana Chethasikas

Universals – Sabba Chiththa Sadharana Chethasika (7)

It was mentioned in the previous episode that there are 13 Chethasikas which arise both with Kusala & Akusala Chiththas and they are known as Annasamana Chethasikas. The first category of Annasamanas is 7 types of “Universal Mental States” or Sabba Chiththa Sadharana Chethasika named as such as though they are found in every Chiththa in common. Seven of them are;

1. Phassa – Contact
2. Vedhana – Feeling
3. Sanna – Perception
4. Chethana – Volition
5. Ekaggatha – One-pointedness
6. Jivithindriya – Psychic life
7. Manasikara – Attention

(1) Phassa – Contact

When describing Chiththas it was mentioned that consciousness arises when one of our six sense organs met with an object. The mental state or the Chethasika which arise, when an object present itself to the consciousness through one of the six senses is “Contact” or Phassa.

(2) Vedhana – Feeling

Recall that every Chiththa was associated or connected with mental or physical feelings of Somansassa (Pleasure), Dhomanassa (Displeasure), Upekkha (Indifference) and Dhukka (Pain), Sukha (Happiness). The feeling described there was the second universal mental state and that is called as “Feeling” or Vedhana.

(3) Sanna – Perception

Sanna or “Perception” in this context is the mental state which recognizes a particular object and its characteristics differentiated from another. When consciousness acquires an object Sanna is the mental state which identifies the nature of that object based on previous perceptions and the one which would record features for future perceptions.

(4) Chethana – Volition

Chethana or Volition plays a predominant part for every action one performs. Chethana fulfils its own function in raising the consciousness and coordinates other mental states as well. Chethana is the effort to perform any action. Kamma happens based on the Chethana preceded by the time one is performing any action. Therefore Chethana is a compulsory mental state arises with any Chiththa.

(5) Ekaggatha – One-pointedness

In order for a consciousness to arise at least for a fraction of a moment mind should be focused on one object. That mental state is known as “One-pointedness” or Ekaggatha. When an aspirant is achieving Jhana states this is one of the mental states improved to obtain extensive concentration on one particular object.

(6) Jeevithindriya – Psychic life

Not only mind but also the matter depends on Jeevithindriya and Jeevithindriya depends on mind and matter. This mental state provides life for Chiththa and Chethasika just like food provides life for our body. It will help Chiththa – Chethasika generations to exist until attaining Nibbana.

(7) Manasikara – Attention

Turing the mind towards the object is the chief characteristic of “Attention” or Manasikara. Therefore there is no mind without Manasikara. It directs the mind towards the object over and over again as and when mind leaves the object.

It should be now clear that the above mental states are compulsory to be associated with any consciousness. The next 6 Annasamanasas are particulars which contains in Chiththas depending on the situation. Next episode would describe Prakirnaka Chethasikas or Particulars in detail.

The Reality of Mental States (Chethasika Paramaththa)

The first ten episodes elaborated various types of consciousness arise for oneself. At one particular instance it is just one consciousness arises. But it doesn’t arise alone. The consciousness arise at one particular moment is associated with many other features which are called “Mental States” or Chethasika. These mental states feature the consciousness and it describes the nature and behavior of a particular consciousness. The second Paramaththa is about these mental states.

Four main characteristics of Chethasika

Chiththa and Chethasika are coupled with each other and does not arise separated. Based on that four main features are identified in Chethasikas;

1.      Chethasika arise together with consciousness – Eka+Uppadha = Ekuppadha

2.      Chethasika perishes together with consciousness – Eka+Nirodha = Ekanirodha

3.      Chethasika has the common object as with consciousness – Eka+Arammana = Ekarammana

4.      Chethasika has the common basis as with consciousness – Eka+Vaththuka – Ekavaththuka

There are 52 types of Chethasikas which arise accordingly with 89 or 121 types of Chiththas. One or more Chethasika would arise with any of the Chiththa. Some arise with all Chiththas, some arise occasionally with all Chiththas, some with Kusala Chiththas and some with Akusala Chiththas.

There are 13 Chethasikas which may arise with both Kusala Chiththas and Akusala Chiththas. Since they commonly arise with both categories they are known as Annasamana Chethasika. 7 out of Annasamana Chethasikas contains in all the Chiththas. They are known as “Universal Mental States” or Sabba Chiththa Sadharana Chethasikas. Rest of the 6 of Annasamanas may or may not contain in all of the Chethasikas and they are known as “Particularas” or Prakirnaka Chethasikas.

Then there are 14 types of “Immoral Mental States” or Akusala Chethasikas which arise only with Akusala Chiththas. Rests of 25 Chethasikas are “Moral Mental States” or Sobhana Chethasikas. The first 19 of them is common to every Beautiful Consciousness. Therefore they are known as Sobhana Sadharana Chethasikas. Then there are 3 “Abstinences” (Virathi), 2 “Illimitables” (Appamanna) and 1 “Wisdom” (Panna) mental states.

Following diagram summarizes the above categories;

How it works

For example consider the first Immoral Consciousness described in Chiththa Paramaththa. That is Somanassa sahagatha Dhittigatha Samprayuktha Asankharika Chiththa. With this Chiththa all 7 Sabba chiththa sadharana chethasikas must arise. Some of the Prakirnaka Chethasikas also may arise. The Annasamanas contained in this Chiththa would take the form of immoral. Then, some of the 14 Chethasikas would also arise. But, none of the 25 types of Sobhana Chethasikas will not arise with this Chiththa.